Plants are often gathered by hand and the roots and tubers often extracted with the aid of a digging-stick. Figure 2 - Chaînes opératoires of the acquisition and treatment of plant and animal products, É. Claud, C.Thiébaut, S. Costamagno, M.-G. Chacón Navarro. Defleshing, the goal of which is to clean the hides of all traces of fat or meat, was achieved on fresh hide (n =17) (figure 17. ) More systematic observations are still necessary. Traces of percussion reveal processes of marrow extraction (see Henri-Martin, 1910; Noe-Nygaard, 1977; Blumenschine, 1988; Brugal, Defleur 1989; Bunn, 1989; Cabrol, 1993; Alhaique, 1997; Anconetani, Ardèvol, 1998; Pickering, Egeland, 2006; Jin, Mills, 2011) and/or breaking down of carcasses (Gifford‑Gonzalez, 1989a; Vigne, 2005). The handle also absorbed partially the shocks from the blows, making the exercise much more comfortable for the user (figure 11). The domestication of plants and animals was one of the greatest steps forward taken by mankind. Even more … This diversity of activities was performed in order to document the potential variability of traces, especially macroscopic traces, according the mode of action and therefore the intention of the artisan. 7In the PCR, we designed the experiments to respond to particular research questions rather than start from specific archaeological situations. Four forelimbs of sheep, seven of cow, and one of horse were defleshed and disarticulated with bifaces (n =8). Although this category has some overlap with the “overexploitation” criteria, it denotes the disturbance of habitat caused by land modification for food or fuel plant production. In contrast to laboratory experiments, experimental archaeology seeks to test hypotheses in conditions that are close as possible to archaeological reality (Outram, 2008). Thus, even if non-woody plants could have played a substantial role in Neanderthal subsistence, notably as food (Hardy et al., 2012; Weyrich et al., 2017), it is probable that their acquisition and potential processing left little to no traces on stone tools. Request PDF | Exploitation of Plant Phenolics in Animal Farming | Secondary metabolites are produced by the plants besides the primary metabolites which are not needed for … 33Concerning the fauna, only the results relevant to butchery operations that require cutting tools are included here. Figure 9 - Schematic illustration of the technological sub-system for the exploitation of animal resources, Modified from Tresset, 1996; CAD: M. Coutureau. The hides were pierced or incised with various tools in flint (unmodified flakes, macro-denticulate, Mousterian point) (figure 17, ). The domestication and exploitation of plants and animals. Therefore, the tool handle must not impede the penetration of the tool and must be adjusted to the tool, which can require a lengthy process of handle fabrication, as in the case of bifaces, for example (Claud 2008; Part I, chapter 2.10). Only when we have this understanding will we be ableto appreciate fully the important social and economic consequencesof this step. , 2005; Martinez-Molina, 2008; de Araújo Igreja, 2008; Pasquini, 2008). Mammals are also trapped for the pet trade, zoos, and biomedical research. This approach allowed us to better respond to our questions by testing different possible scenarios without an. Inspired by the work of A. Tresset (1996), figure 9 presents a schematic view of different stages of this chaîne opératoire. Aldous Huxley once wrote that animals might regard human beings as Satan. It must be noted that in the interpretation of use-wear on the archaeological tools, in conjunction with these experiments, we used data from previous experimental studies of hide working, especially with side scrapers (Lemorini, 2000; Coudenneau, 2004; Claud, 2008). These indications consist of wear traces (for example Anderson-Gerfaud, Helmer, 1987; Beyries, 1987b; Lemorini, 2000; Rots, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015b) or adhesives in the form of residues or micro-residues stuck to tool surfaces as at Königsaue (Germany), where pieces of birch pitch bear impressions of a wooden haft (Grünberg, 2002; Mazza et al., 2006; Pawlik, Thissen, 2011; Cârciumaru et al., 2012). The original aim of neotaphonomic analysis, which persists to this day, was to establish the signatures (attributes) of different agents that modify bone in archaeological environments (Behrensmeyer, 1978; Brain, 1981; Binford, 1981; Shipman, Rose, 1983; Andrews, Cook, 1985; Blumenshine, , 2005; Letourneux, Pétillon, 2008; Mallye, , 2009; Mallye, Laroulandie, 2014…). The Evenki disarticulate all of the skeletal elements with caution (Abe, 2005) while the Dena’ina pulverise them meticulously (Russell, 1995). Some experiments involving 32 tools of various types in flint (n =25) and in quartzite (n =7) (table 10) were conducted on hard animal products. Read more. With regard to the phase of carcass acquisition, if we exclude layer E at Mandrin, in which a very large number of points present impact traces (Metz, 2015), the use of projectile points in the Middle Palaeolithic of Western Europe is only demonstrated at a few sites that have yielded a small number of points (often fewer than five) compatible with use as in hunting weapons (Caspar, , 2002; Villa, Lenoir, 2006, 2009; Rios-Garaizar 2006, 2010, 2016; Galvan Santos, , 2007-2008; Mussi, Villa 2008; Soressi, Locht, 2010; Locht, , 2015; Rots, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015b; Lazuén, 2012a, 2012b; Daffara. Even though cutmarks are amongst the earliest traces to be identified as signatures of human activities on animal bones (Lartet, 1860; Henri‑Martin, 1906, 1907 on ungulate bones from the site of La Quina; Milne-Edwards, 1875 cited in Laroulandie, 2007 on bird remains), it was not until the work of J. E. Guilday, (1962) followed by G. C. Frison (1970) that the fi systematic recording of butchery marks in archaeological assemblages was conducted. We also show why exploitation of perceptual biases and mimicry are best envisioned as a continuum, and that the EPB … Two modes of felling were performed: percussion by percussion and sawing (continuous contact in linear motion, figure 4). The identification of points that have sustained impact at Middle Palaeolithic sites in Western Europe is hampered by the lack of experimental reference collections relevant to lithic implements from the period, aside those produced by S. Beyries and H. Plisson on Levallois points from the Levant (Plisson, Beyries, 1998). Different types of points were used for axial hafting (n =100) or latero‑distal hafting (n =7) (tableau 3, figure 10b). - Carcass acquisition simulation. Finally, the publications that address use-wear related to the plant processing (fabrication of arrows, basketry, plaiting, harvesting of grains) on experimental and archaeological material from more recent contexts (end of the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) are comparatively numerous, and very well illustrated (see for example Anderson, 1992; Juel Jensen, 1994; Gassin, 1996; Clemente-Conte, Gibaja Bao, 1998; Caspar. Except in rare cases (for example Vigne, 2005), it is often very difficult to identify particular actions in butchery practices based on the marks left on bones, and to form hypotheses that can be tested via an actualistic approach. The carcasses were systematically dismembered by detaching the scapula from the trunk and femur from the pelvis. Thongs were softened with two Clactonian notches in flint, a denticulate in quartzite, and an unmodified flake, by rubbing the hide across the concavity of a notch or an unmodified edge with a concave outline (figure 19. Read Next. Thongs were softened with two Clactonian notches in flint, a denticulate in quartzite, and an unmodified flake, by rubbing the hide across the concavity of a notch or an unmodified edge with a concave outline (figure 19b). The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. The goal was to examine the variation of butchery traces according to the raw materials (flint vs. quartzite) and tool-type (point, denticulate, notched piece, flake cleaver, biface) and to create a comparative reference for the differentiation of use-wear related to butchery from use-wear related to other activities. We also show why exploitation of perceptual biases and mimicry are best envisioned as a Animals used for food. location New York . 35The potential traces left by the impact of these weapons on the bones were not studied. The handle also absorbed partially the shocks from the blows, making the exercise much more comfortable for the user (figure 11). The flake cleavers used to fracture the ribs and segment the vertebral column of the bison were hafted in wood handles. The study of these remains allows us to determine the nature of the objects (raw wood, hunting weapons, hafts, containers,…), the type of wood used and even traces related to fabrication. Amongst the stages identified in this activity (defleshing, hair-removal, tanning, curing, softening, dyeing, …; see Chahine, 2002), hide defleshing is often considered crucial and requires the use of tools with a sharp edge in the case of ungulates (Chahine, 2002; Beyries, 2008). 24The technological subsystem for the exploitation of animal resources unfolds in several stages, from the acquisition of the animal (hunting, scavenging) to its consumption (Castel et al., 1998; Vigne, 1998). That is to say, the aim of the experiments is a better understanding of the function of tools, their modalities of use, and the technological procedures for certain practices. Some of the bifaces and the flake cleavers used in percussion were hafted in wood handles, in order to put more force behind the blows and render use more comfortable. Download for offline reading, highlight, bookmark or take notes while you read The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. As for the working of hides, though it has been documented in Middle Palaeolithic lithic assemblages since the first use-wear analyses, there is little detailed data on the, of hide processing for the period. The objectives of this practice, though varied (adapting a tool to a specific task such as felling a tree or shooting at an animal; comparing the effectiveness of a hafted tool with that of a tool held in the bare hand; comparing the intensity of the use-wear traces produced on the edge under the two modes of prehension) did not include the purposeful production of traces related to hafting in order to deduce the criteria for their identification. If the activities were not performed with the same tools used on the limbs, the tool is indicated in the column “Side”. Some reptile skins—such as crocodile, python, and monitor lizard—are highly prized as exotic leathers. Workers in the archaeological, anthropological, and biological fields attempted to bridge the gap between their respective disciplines through personal contact and discussion. Indeed, the practice of such activities has rarely been identifi in use-wear studies of Middle Palaeolithic tools, that is to say, in a limited number of assemblages and a small proportion of artefacts (Anderson-Gerfaud, 1981; Beyries, 1987a, 1993b; Geneste, Plisson, 1996; Lemorini, 2000; Bourguignon et al., 2002; Lazuèn, Delagnes, 2014; Lazuèn, Gonzáles Urquijo, 2014). We use the EPB model because the selective pressures on plants are a product of the sensory and cognitive abilities of animals, and it will often be difficult to identify unambiguously a specific proximate mechanism. This is a strong case for choosing more compassionate scientific methods for research, since according to the Animal Legal Defense Fund “an estimated 100 million animals … Publisher. These pioneering studies in lithic use-wear analysis conducted on French sites focused primarily on the identification of the materials worked and not on the reconstruction of the precise motions applied. In addition to the practices of acquisition documented through the projectile experiments, different butchery operations were conducted in the experimental sessions: skinning, extraction of organs, breaking down the carcass, dismemberment, disarticulation, defleshing, extraction of tendons, scraping of the periosteum, and fracturing of bones for marrow. Ophite and schist were only used on two half-carcasses (figure 16, table 6). This project has benefited from a unique combination of the knowledge and competencies of specialists in several sub-disciplines from its earliest stages. For the zooarchaeologists as well, the study of marks left on faunal remains, whether from butchery, transformation, or use, constitutes an invaluable tool of reference for the reconstruction of the, , 2009; Leduc, 2010; Costamagno, 2012; Soulier, 2013; Chevallier, 2015). In several instances, the ribs were separated from the vertebral column either by fracturing / flexion or with the aid of a sharp-edged tool (table 8). by Laura Bridgeman. The objective of the various experiments conducted on lithic tools was the creation of a reference collection of use-wear traces on several tool types that occur at the study sites (bifaces, flake cleavers, denticulates, points). In most cases, the longitudinal incision running along the leg toward the evisceration incision was positioned on the medial surface of the legs, but for certain half‑arcasses, it was placed in another position (see below). Other questions were addressed at the same level of inference, such as the degree of effectiveness of a given tool in a specific activity. Table 7 - Activities related to skinning and disarticulation of the limbs from whole carcasses, The location of the initial incision of the skin is listed in the column titled “fi circular incision”. Leather bindings and/or adhesives with resin, wax, or ochre bases were used to affix the pieces in the haft; types and states of wood used: as the types of wood exploited at the study sites is rarely known (with the exception of Grotte du Noisetier, Théry‑Parisot, Mourre, 2010), the choice of the types and state (green, dry, burnt) was guided by the objective of working wood of varying density and hardness in order to produce the most varied use-wear possible. While often associated with Overfishing , overexploitation can apply to many groups including mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and plants. Storder, 1987). Le recyclage et la réutilisation de nucléus et de bifaces au Paléolithique Moyen en Europe occidentale : quelles fonctions et quelles implications culturelles ? These results cast doubt on assemblages that have yielded a small number of impacted points, as the damage could result from taphonomic factors (Pargeter, 2011). In this sense, understanding animal butchery, provides insight into intentions, technological knowledge, and even cultural practices (Dumont, 1987; Vigne, , 1987). (Domínguez-Rodrigo et al., 2009; de Juana et al., 2010), a second objective was to identify potential distinctive morphological criteria of the cutmarks that might aid in the identification of the tool used in different stages of carcass exploitation as a complement to the results of lithic use-wear analysis. The handles used were straight and, less frequently, curved and with a male or a juxtaposed arrangement (sensu Storder, 1987). Proceedings of a meeting of the Research Seminar in Archaeology and Related Subjects, London, May 1968. Both fresh and dry blanks were sawed, perforated, thinned, grooved, and/or sharpened (figures 6-7), employing different modes of action (see Part I, chapter 2.4.B.a).

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